HESI A2 Exam: Biochemistry
• What are the monomers of proteins?
• What is the general term for the conversion of glucose into pyruvate?
• What are polymers?
• Which type of glycolysis has one glucose molecule of glucose become one molecule of ATP and two of NADPH?
• Hydroxyl is a polar group that forms __________
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids contain a phosphate group, a five carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are sugars or starches that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Monosaccharides are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are fundamental units of carbohydrates and cannot be further hydrolyzed to simpler compounds. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose and galactose. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).
Lipids
Lipids contain long chains of hydrocarbons. Lipids consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are not soluble in water and are used for energy storage/insulation.
Phospholipids form the membrane that make up the outer layer of all human cells. They play a key role in determining what enters and exits every cell.
A steroid is an organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration. Examples include the dietary lipid cholesterol, the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone. Steroids have two principal biological functions: certain steroids (such as cholesterol) are important components of cell membranes which alter membrane fluidity, and many steroids are signaling molecules which activate steroid hormone receptors.
Fatty acids are long strands of hydrocarbons and are used for long-term energy storage in the form of triglycerides.
Proteins and Amino Acids
Proteins are composed of amino acids, which contain an amino group, a hydrogen molecule, and an R-group.
Amino acids are the monomers of proteins. Monosaccharide's are carbohydrates composed of simple sugar ring monomers. When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, they form a disaccharide. Amino acids are linked by a peptide bond that forms with the removal of a water molecule from the carboxyl ad amino groups.
Amino acids are the building block of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids in the human body. We can only synthesize 12 of them. We ingest the other eight.
Hydroxyl is a polar group that forms hydrophilic amino acids such as serine and threonine.
Globular proteins are soluble in water.
Fibrous proteins are not soluble in water and are found in instructural components like nails (keratin) and connective tissue (collagen).
Structure
Primary structure is determined by the amino acid sequence of the chain.
Secondary structure is determined by intermolecular bonding within the chain.
Tertiary structure involves globular proteins and the shape determines specificity.
Quaternary structure means that there is more than a single chain.
Enzymes
Enzymes speed up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy (energy required for reaction to take place). Enzymes are formed by joining two amino acids. Enzymes are globular proteins.
The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life
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Pathways
The Entner-Doudoroff pathway has one glucose molecule of glucose become one molecule of ATP and two of NADPH. The end product is two pyruvate molecules.
Embden-Meyerhof pathway has one molecule of glucose become two ATP and two NADH molecules.
Pentose Phosphate pathway has one glucose molecule produce one ATP and two NADPH molecules.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and a hydrogen ion. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP and NADH. Glycolysis is a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Most monosaccharides, such as fructose and galactose, can be converted to one of these intermediates.
Other Stuff to Know
Polymers are made from monomers linked by chemical bonds. They are produced by polymerization, and occur either naturally or synthetically. Examples of natural polymers are cellulose, shellac and amber. Biopolymers such as proteins and nucleic acids play crucial roles in biological processes.
A carboxylic acid is an organic acid that contains a carboxyl group (C(=O)OH) attached to an R-group. The general formula of a carboxylic acid is R–COOH, with R referring to the alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, or other group. Carboxylic acids occur widely. Important examples include the amino acids and fatty acids.
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